James Hammond’s essay, “Definitive Programs: Rhetoric, Computation, and the (Pre)history of Controversy over Automated Essay Scoring, 1954–1965,” appears*

James Hammond’s essay, “Definitive Programs: Rhetoric, Computation, and the (Pre)history of Controversy over Automated Essay Scoring, 1954–1965,” appears in Rhetorical Machines: Writing, Code, and Computational Ethics, ed. John Jones and Lavinia Hirsu (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2019).