By Maren Blanchard
ABSTRACT
Literacy levels in children have strong implications for future employment opportunities and level of SES. In this research article, we evaluate literature regarding one’s level of literacy and socioeconomic status (SES) to find how literacy influences SES and how SES influences literacy. In this context, SES is measured by level of income. A strong positive correlation is found between literacy and SES, with higher income being linked to higher literacy.
INTRODUCTION
The cycle of poverty is widely acknowledged in the U.S. economic system and society at large; however, the deeply intertwined cycle of literacy is lesser known. The cycle of literacy and the cycle of poverty both describe how one’s circumstances at birth can influence their future life outcomes. Those born into a low SES often have fewer opportunities and experience more difficulty obtaining a higher SES. Similarly, those born to parents with low literacy will not have a strong foundation for literacy before entering school and are more likely to fall behind and have lower literacy levels. SES and literacy intersect in the educational and job markets, where higher-paying careers often require higher education, which in turn requires higher levels of literacy.
In this context, the term “literacy level” does not merely represent one element of reading or writing, but rather a composite evaluation determined by factors such as phonological awareness, vocabulary, fluency, and many others. Literacy research is a deeply complex field of study with many intersections, one of these intersections being socioeconomic status. SES in this context is measured by level of income. In this research article, we will answer the question “how does socioeconomic status impact literacy, and how can literacy impact socioeconomic status?” and discuss the implications of this relationship from childhood (SES influencing literacy) to adulthood (literacy influencing SES).
Just as those born into poverty have a stronger likelihood of remaining impoverished, those born into a family with low literacy levels are likely to have weak literacy skills themselves (Rea, 2020). This seems logical, as parents who are not comfortable with literature will interact with it less than parents with higher literacy levels. Similarly, as these parents are likely not confident in teaching their children how to read or write, these children will lack a strong home-literacy foundation, thus leading to a lower level of literacy. A low literacy level may disadvantage someone searching for a higher-paying job, as many skilled positions require strong literacy. Many may argue that the child’s school district is solely responsible for developing literacy, but this assumes the child’s family is living in an area with a good school district. Being born into a low SES likely means one will attend a school with lower levels of funding, creating a learning environment that is not as strong as their middle or upper-class peers (Rea, 2020). Considering shortages of teachers and behavioral issues often present in poorly funded school districts, these schools may be unable to teach crucial aspects of literacy development, causing students to lack certain foundational skills and lag behind their peers who attend better-funded schools. We observe that literacy and socioeconomic status are intertwined in multiple ways. Many people of lower socioeconomic statuses have lower literacy levels, this relationship resulting both from how SES can influence literacy and from how literacy can influence SES (Rea, 2020).
LITERATURE REVIEW
Related literature within the topic shows both that SES influences literacy and literacy influences SES. We separate these two relationships to evaluate how research indicates that literacy is influenced by SES and how SES is influenced by literacy, both SES and literacy being part of a reverse causation relationship. We discuss this relationship and the implications of these relationships for children and adults.
SES Influencing Literacy
While many understand that there are gaps in academic achievement for different incomes, a study by Reardon and colleagues (2012) helps illustrate the extent to which SES influences academic success. The data for this study was collected from the 2009 ECLS-K data report from the National Center for Education Statistics and the National Assessment of Educational Progress-Long Term Trend (NAEP-LTT), combining the sources to understand the severity of the literacy disparities between income groups. This research found that in the United States, eighth graders in the study’s lowest income group had literacy skills comparable to high-income third graders (Reardon et al., 2012, p. 26). Compared to fellow eighth graders, these lower-income students were five years behind their high-income peers in literacy level (Rearson et al., p.26).
This difference in literacy due to income disparities is not unique to the United States. A study based in Scotland that focused on the influence of income volatility on children’s cognitive abilities discovered that students with parents of lower SES were more likely to experience income volatility (Sosu & Schmidt, 2022). At around age three, the Naming Vocabulary and Picture Similarities subtests taken from the British Ability Scales were administered to participants to test the children’s cognitive abilities. When students experienced a steady increase in family income, their scores on vocabulary assessments also increased at a rate greater than those from stable-income families. In contrast, students experiencing a downward or unstable fluctuation of income performed worse than those students whose family income was stable (Sosu & Schmidt, 2022, p. 7). This study, therefore, illustrates how a steady or rising SES can greatly benefit a child’s literacy development, while those who experience instability in income will likely have greater financial stress and lower levels of literacy.
In Israel, Korat (2005) separated an assessment into contextual and non-contextual aspects of literacy. Contextual measures included the identification of reading and writing behavior, reading environmental print, and identification of print materials. Non-contextual measures evaluated were phonemic awareness, letter naming, concepts about print, emergent writing, and word recognition. Korat reports that for non-contextual aspects of literacy, students of lower SES significantly lag behind higher SES students, while contextual aspects are fairly similar between income levels (Korat,2005, p. 232). The findings of this study further support the idea that one’s SES influences literacy, specifically aspects of non-contextual literacy development. The fact that contextual factors are similar among groups implies that while lower SES children can still identify letters and print materials, many of them are lacking the decoding skills necessary to understand and interpret text. Being able to identify letters or words is a skill entirely different from being able to piece the information together in order to comprehend what was read. This poses a threat to the literacy development of lower SES children, as the inability to decode what words and sentences truly mean may inhibit growth in subsequent grades. Without being taught crucial skills necessary for proficiency in reading and writing, we cannot expect these lower SES children to move on to higher grade levels, as they will only become further behind. These differences in the foundational literacy between children of low and high socioeconomic groups indicate an egregious disparity that, if unchecked, may prevent them from obtaining a higher socioeconomic status later in their lives.
Literacy Influencing SES
In regard to how literacy influences SES, a 1994 study evaluated how beneficial adult literacy programs might be in increasing employment opportunities. Most adults in the study with low literacy levels did have full-time employment, but their work was primarily confined to the service, labor, and construction industries. While these industries offer steady employment, they often contain few opportunities for professional growth. After completion of the literacy programs, many participants left these industries, indicating that their improved literacy allowed for job opportunities in more desirable fields (Malicky & Norman, 1994, p. 126). Similarly, a 2020 study evaluating literacy and numeracy in OECD countries found that many adults with low literacy can find jobs, but that higher literacy and skill levels give workers more opportunities for career and income growth (Cherry & Vignoles, 2020). This further illustrates the influence that literacy has on job acquisition and how crucial it can be to many higher-paying careers. In summary of the literature evaluated, socioeconomic status influences literacy while literacy can also influence the opportunities one has for employment and therefore influences socioeconomic status.
RESULTS
The results of the studies support the idea that SES has a great influence on literacy levels, and that one’s literacy proficiency can influence one’s employment and overall economic stability. The Reardon et al. study not only found a significant income achievement gap for literacy but also that this gap has been increasing for the past several decades (Reardon et al., 2012, p. 26). The implications of this gap increase are discussed further in the discussion section, and overall pose great threats to individuals and the economy at lea
Sosu’s results show the importance of income stability for the growth of cognitive abilities, and how volatility in income can hinder a child’s cognitive development (Sosu & Schmidt, 2022). The Korat study’s results similarly back up the relationship, with students of middle SES performing better than low SES students on assessments of non-contextual literacy (Korat, 2005). Below is a table describing these results and their relationship with SES.
Source: Korat (2005), p. 231
These studies demonstrate a significant influence on the availability of job opportunities and skill development, following the idea that while SES contributes to literacy, literacy also contributes to SES.
It is important to note that the results of these studies are an overview of SES and literacy relations, but that there are several intersections that have more specific influences and can add further influence to SES or literacy development. Some of these factors include but are not limited to race, ethnicity, gender, and age (Rea, 2020). Intersectionality within SES and these demographic groups can influence SES which in turn can influence literacy, or can influence literacy and in turn influence SES. For example, gender disparities in income level can influence SES, and then as we have seen from the literature, SES can influence literacy levels in children of that earner. These demographic influences are important to consider in looking further into the literacy/SES relationship, but for the focus of this paper, we will only evaluate the overall relationships.
DISCUSSION
Why is this relationship between SES and literacy significant? The influence of SES on literacy is not one-sided, and large-scale literacy improvements can lead to a better economic state. Nationally, low skill levels related to low literacy have estimated costs of $225 billion in workforce nonproductivity, lost tax revenue, and crime (National Council for Adult Learning, 2015). With this gap growing, we expect the costs to grow as well, with increasingly lower literacy generating increasingly less workforce productivity. As Reardon et al. finds, the gap in literacy achievement between socioeconomic statuses is increasing, which ought to be a serious concern for future generations. If the gap widens, the cycles of literacy and low SES will be perpetuated further, as will these economic losses, with lower literacy adults unable to gain career opportunities and contribute as much as they could to the economy. Therefore, intervention programs focused on literacy could have great economic benefits, leading to a more productive and economically efficient workforce.
To better understand how we can increase literacy both individually and on a large scale, future research should evaluate the effect of government-subsidized literacy programs for both children and adults of low SES. Possible benefits of these programs could be making home-literacy development more equitable by providing more resources for lower SES families or even trying to raise parental literacy. While these interventions would likely result in many benefits, a highly unequal level of accessibility would remain. Higher SES families and students have opportunities for private tutors, better schooling whether private or in a well-funded public school district, as well as more opportunities for higher education. Despite current programs in place, more help needs to be directed toward lower socioeconomic status individuals in order to boost their literacy and increase their opportunities to contribute to the economy.
CONCLUSION
The available research suggests a strong relationship between literacy and socioeconomic status. Not only does SES contribute to literacy level, but one’s literacy level can influence the SES they will hold throughout their lives. The differences in literacy levels between income levels are rising and will continue to rise. There is no clear answer to how to resolve the literacy gap, but the relationship between SES and literacy is one that will continue to influence our children and economy.
References
Cherry, G., & Vignoles, A. (2020). What is the economic value of literacy and numeracy?. IZA World of Labor 229 https://doi.org/10.15185/izawol.229.v2
Korat, O. (2005). Contextual and Non-Contextual Knowledge in Emergent Literacy Development: A Comparison between Children from Low SES and Middle SES Communities. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 20(2), 220-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2005.04.009.
Malicky, G. V., & Norman, C. A. (1994). Participation in Adult Literacy Programs and Employment. Journal of Reading, 38(2), 122–127. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40032279
National Council for Adult Learning. (2015). Adult Education Facts That Demand Priority Attention. http://ncalamerica.org/AdultEDFacts
Rea, A. (2020, April 29). How Serious Is America’s Literacy Problem? Library Journal. https://www.libraryjournal.com/story/How-Serious-Is-Americas-Literacy-Problem
Reardon, S. F., Valentino, R. A., & Shores, K. A. (2012). Patterns of Literacy among U.S. Students. The Future of Children, 22(2), 17–37. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23317409
Sosu, E. M., Schmidt, P. (2022). Changes in Cognitive Outcomes in Early Childhood: The Role of Family Income and Volatility. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.758082