Tag Archives: Basketball

Out of Bounds: An Examination of Gender Representationin Basketball Media Coverage

Authors: Spencer Klein, Ava Osborn, Stephanie Oxenhorn, Lucas Ponsock, and Mike Seck

Women’s Sports Coverage in Sports Media (Photo by Saint Mary’s University)

Abstract

Narratives constructed by the media significantly shape societal perceptions of gender. Specifically within basketball, media has built distinct representations of the sport that differ across genders. This paper explores dominant gender ideologies in the media’s depiction of basketball and implications of the media’s involvement in the sport at collegiate and professional levels. Specifically, media coverage has furthered a gender gap in sports, creating disparities and undermining women’s achievements. First, the media prioritizes the airing of men’s basketball over women’s and uses discriminatory language, both creating gender stereotypes. Secondly, the industry itself is male-dominated because of institutionalized barriers, allowing male perspectives to shape and control women’s basketball narratives. Thirdly, the media uses its influence to frame differences for female athletes of color, perpetuating detrimental stereotypes that have repercussions extending beyond sport.

Significance

Narratives by Media are Presented in a Limited Way

In the current media landscape, narratives are crucial in shaping the public’s perceptions, opinions, and attitudes toward the relationship between gender and sports. However, these narratives are presented in a limited manner, leading to the reinforcement of stereotypes and the marginalization of women in the sport of basketball. One striking way that media narratives limit the representation of female athletes is through the frequent use of sexualized or ‘female-typed’ words (Mannion, 2016). According to Mannion (2016), the language used by the media describes the physical appearance or their gender rather than their athletic achievements. The language used by the media not only diminishes their accomplishments but also perpetuates stereotypes surrounding women’s societal role and their capabilities in basketball.

The lack of impactful role models for female basketball athletes further construes the narratives surrounding their sports abilities. Mannion (2016) highlights how the lack of role models inhibits younger girls from pursuing a career in basketball. Without proper representation in the media, young girls can fall victim to gender stereotypes, therefore halting their dream of becoming a professional WNBA player. Another significant consequence of the limited portrayal of female basketball players is the inability of female athletes to connect to other athletes through shared experiences. According to Cooky et al (2021), most women’s basketball coverage lacks substance and depth, using low ample game footage, subpar graphics, and little expert interviews. The lack of high-quality coverage and interviews restricts female basketball players’ ability to share their journey and their highs and lows with each other.

Finally, the construction of limited narratives by the media reinforces gender roles in society. Due to this marginalization, these media narratives perpetuate the idea that basketball is to be played by men, forcing women to resort to other undesired professions.

Existing inequities

In recent years, strides have been made toward bridging the gap between men and women in basketball. The WNBA has improved access to top-notch facilities, training programs, and competitive opportunities for their female players. However, many inequities still exist. In 2021, an online video went viral displaying the differences between the men’s and women’s training facilities during the NCAA March Madness tournament (Armato, 2023). When acknowledging this issue, the NCAA claimed there wasn’t enough space for better training equipment rather than admitting their wrongdoing in this scenario (Coleman, 2021). Female basketball players deserve better and shouldn’t have to take to social media to make their voices heard. Continuing, there are obvious pay disparities. The average WNBA salary is $113,295, while the average NBA salary is $9.7 million (Rogelberg, 2024), 40 times that of the highest-paid WNBA player. Similarly, endorsement deals for female basketball players tend to pale in comparison to those secured by male players. Stars in the NBA are able to earn many millions from endorsements with major brands, whereas top WNBA players struggle to secure similar lucrative deals. This exacerbates the broader issue of underrepresentation, as the lack of visibility and support contributes to a snowball effect. Less media coverage deters potential sponsors from investing in women’s basketball, perpetuating the cycle of inequality. Efforts to bridge this gap, such as increased media coverage, advocacy for equal pay, and systemic change remain imperative in fostering a more equitable landscape for female basketball athletes.

Discussion

Gender Ideologies

Historically, women’s sports, including basketball, have been overshadowed by their male counterparts, leading to stereotypes and misconceptions about female athletes’ abilities. Despite significant progress in challenging these stereotypes, gender ideologies persist in shaping how women’s basketball is perceived and valued. Gender ideologies have defined expectations for how people should express themselves, behave, and interact. These ideologies have been reinforced by narratives in the media, and by understanding these biases we can explore how social expectations and stereotypes are coded into media coverage and overall representation of basketball.

These large media outlets struggle with these narratives because female athleticism challenges gender norms. stereotypes and misconceptions about female athletes’ including the depiction of women as either maternal figures or sexual objects. Hanson (2012) explores this phenomenon, highlighting how media representations of female athletes frequently adhere to traditional gender norms, relegating women to roles that emphasize their sexuality or nurturing qualities rather than their athletic prowess. This is reinforced through the media’s use of language to describe female athletes.

One prevalent aspect is the language used by media outlets, which often emphasizes physical appearance or gender over athletic achievements, thereby diminishing the accomplishments of female athletes (Mannion, 2016). An example would be the language used by media outlets to describe Caitlin Clark. In past media, she has been described as bossy, arrogant, and a brat while her male counterparts are described as leaders, passionate and hard working. This language not only reinforces traditional gender roles but also perpetuates stereotypes about women’s capabilities in sports.

While gender ideologies remain, a major issue is women’s sports, there have been major strides to breaking these preconceived narratives and conceptions about women in basketball. One example would be a new term called ‘The Caitlin Clark Effect’ (McGuire, 2023) which is being used to describe how one player has changed preconceived narratives about a sport. This effect has broken preconceived narratives that no one watches women’s basketball, with a woman’s basketball game being one of the most watched college basketball games ever, both male and female. However, being a major step in the right direction, it does not come without push back. Some on social media still sexualize women basketball players and diminish their accomplishments. This can be seen in former NFL superstars Antonio Brown’s comments on the female basketball player (Dailymail, 2024).

Institutionalized Barriers

Barriers in sports media have undermined the representation of women in sports media through systematic policies put in place to institutionalize the underrecognition of women’s sports. Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972 states:

No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance. (Title IX, 2021).

Despite being written into law, there is exclusion of female representation in women’s sports. The need for representation in women’s sports isn’t only about visibility and equity but authority and influence. Participants of a research study examining the insights of stakeholders in women’s sports advocated for “Policies and quotas… that support gender equity in administration and leadership… funding and public support for funding toward women’s sport… support of non-broadcast Olympic sports, [and] force diversification across leadership.” (Lebel et al., 2021). This lack of representation has lead to disparities in scholarship and endorsement opportunities especially at the collegiate level. If major brands and corporations are less likely to invest in a female athlete, then there are fewer opportunities to build up over these institutionalized barriers. This negative feedback loop is the primary source of women’s sports coverage disparities. This is especially highlighted in the case of women’s basketball, which has significantly gained popularity but still struggles to reach the same level of visibility as men’s basketball.

Even when present in sports media, coverage of women’s sports is often deeply rooted in gender bias and objectification. The female body is stereotyped and trivialized, often approaching “sexually-gratifying male voyeurism” (Ponterotto, 2014). An analylsis of the 1992 and 1996 Olympics revealed the denial of power for female basketball players compared to male basketball players through the use of less physically demanding adjectives during commentary (Higgs & Weiller, 2003). Reporters covered women’s sports using degrading comments about athletes’ bodies and judging whether they were physically able to participate in their sport. Words like “strong” and “aggressive” were used to describe male athletes 3 times as often as they were for women. (Mannion, 2016).

Recently, society has began to challenge traditional gender roles in female athleticism and feminist liberation:

U.S. society continues to accept myths regarding the supposed weakness of women’s bodies. Women’s displays of physical power are often prevented or undermined, typically centering on the concept of femininity. Increasing number of female athletes have not led to a true physical feminist liberation, one which would increase women’s confidence, power, respect, wealth, enjoyment of physicality, and escape from rape and the fear of rape. (Roth & Basow, 2004).

The reinforcement of discriminatory institutionalized barriers in women’s sports media coverage stems from cultural norms, stereotypes, and unconscious biases and require addressing systemic inequalities in not just women’s sports media coverage but society as a whole to create more inclusive and equitable institutions that support not just the visibility but the success and prevalence of women athletes.

Intersectionality

An important consideration for this discussion is the role of intersectionality in the media’s representation of female athletes, as gender ideologies and institutionalized barriers  coexist with racial ideologies. Intersectionality is the idea that identities are complex, and therefore people’s positions and social identities in society are defined by a negotiation between all aspects of their identity, such as race, gender, sexual orientation, and more (Crenshaw, 1989). When using the lens of intersectionality, it can be seen that the narratives defining female athletes differ greatly across racial lines. Athletes of color often encounter invisibleness and unique stereotypes in the media, while white female athletes are often characterized by the media as talented, hardworking, and as leaders (Simien et al., 2019). The complexity of social identities have significant implications on the position and treatment of women in sport and broader society.

Differences in the media’s construction of narratives for female athletes along racial lines are particularly apparent in the context of basketball. A recent example of this can be seen in the media’s coverage of Angel Reese, a black female collegiate basketball player. In response to Reese coming forward about receiving death threats and hate following the basketball season, Emmanuel Acho, a host on a sports analyst show called “The Speak”, said that “Angel Reese you have self-proclaimed to be the villain…No one has sympathy for the villain” (Acho, 2024). In this segment, Acho argues that Reese’s competitiveness on the court justifies the hate she receives off the court. These comments about Reese reflect much larger issues regarding the stereotypes surrounding black females in sport; embedded in these comments are stereotypes that represent black female athletes as angry and aggressive (Simien et al., 2019). These stereotypes extend far beyond basketball, and characterize black female athletes similarly in other sports, an example being Serena Williams in tennis. These narratives are extremely harmful for black women as they work to perpetuate stereotypes that minimize their humanity, while simultaneously upholding systemic racism.

The importance of intersectionality in this discussion is that these stereotypes are unique to female athletes of color. This can be seen when drawing comparisons to the representation of white female athletes in the media. Within the same video, the same group of reporters discuss the success of Catilin Clark, spending the entire conversation reflecting on her talent, work ethic, and leadership capabilities; they focus none of the discourse on her similarly competitive sportsmanship. These distinct differences in the discourse show the critical role of considering intersectionality in the analysis of media representation of female athletes, as stereotypes and barriers are characterized differently across races. While these stereotypes are seen in sport, their effects extend to broader society, as they perpetuate narrow narratives of female athletes along racial lines and worsen existing power structures (Simien et al., 2019).

Key Takeaways

Ultimately, the media’s construction of basketball work to uphold systemic gender inequities in society, as their construction of narratives about women’s basketball contributes to pervasive stereotypes, limited professional opportunities for women in the industry, and detrimental framing differences for women athletes of color; these narratives have significant and far reaching implications, as they exacerbate existing inequities and fabricate a monolithic narrative of women.

About the Authors:

  • Spencer Klein is a senior at the University of Michigan in the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, majoring in Cognitive Science. He is pursuing a career in sports marketing and strategy, specifically focusing on the sports betting industry.
  • Ava Osborn is a senior at the University of Michigan majoring in Economics with a minor in Business. After college, she is pursuing a career in marketing.
  • Luke Ponsock is a senior in Biomedical Engineering and will be pursuing a career in clinical engineering with a focus on additively manufactured surgical plates and cutting guides.
  • Mike Seck is a senior at the University of Michigan in the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, majoring in Political Science. After college, he is pursuing a career in law.
  • Stephanie Oxenhorn is a senior at the University of Michigan double majoring in Economics and Psychology. After graduating, she is pursuing a career as an analyst.

Identities as Boundaries Within Sports

Carly Falek and Katey Salogar on April 17, 2023

The general public may think that sports are diverse and inclusive, but the reality is that there is a severe lack of diversity in the sporting world when it comes to race, gender, and sexuality. If you are not a straight white male, your access to sports is going to be limited. This is relevant because the diversity that is modeled within the sporting world is reflected in those that watch sports. If people are not being exposed to players that do not fit the straight, white, male mold while they are watching sports, they do not have to put any thought into the biases that they may hold surrounding those groups of people. This concept can be seen within sports in North America, especially hockey and basketball. Access and inclusion within these two sports are very limited, with hockey being particularly limited in terms of race and sexuality and basketball being limited with race and gender. These identities control one’s access to different societal arenas and provide them with the necessary capital to be successful. Katey will focus on the ways in which masculinity and whiteness as property and the ideas surrounding it impact the sport of hockey, and Carly will look at how racism, heteronormativity, and basketball interact. She will reclaim sport sociologist Jay Coakley‘s cultural critique on contemporary sports and a concept of “Whiteness As Property”, in order to articulate the direct history and culture of Boston and New England and thus to prove the prevalence of racism in basketball. Finally, she will use both the experience of WNBA players and Asian American basketball players such as Jeremy Lin to understand how unprotected identities receive different and discriminatory treatments based on heteronormative ideals. Carly will particularly examine how whiteness is a protection and privilege for male basketball players, and how nonwhite men’s basketball players face discrimination in and out of the game.

Particularly in the sport of hockey, there is not much diversity on the professional level in North America. When it comes to race, there is a severe lack of nonwhite players in the National Hockey League. In a 2022 report about diversity in all employees of the NHL, the researchers found that across the league’s employees, including teams, the racial identification was 83.6% white, with each minority group (Asian, Black, Hispanic/Latino, and Indigenous) making up around 3% each of the employment population. The report makes suggestions in terms of how the league can make itself more welcoming to minorities, including educational initiatives. Greg Wyshynski of ESPN discusses how the league and specific players were specifically involved in racial conversations following the death of George Floyd in the summer of 2020, but that their activism and efforts towards improving the racial map of the NHL have faded away into nothing since then. The lack of racial diversity within the NHL as it is now, combined with the lack of efforts on behalf of the league to help foster racial growth, makes it extremely difficult for those who identify as racial minorities to find a place in the league.

As recently as 2022, there have been visible racial issues with players in professional hockey. The AHL, the minor league for the NHL, had a duo of events in which players were suspended for making “racial gestures” towards minority players. In both cases, the player who made the gesture was suspended, with one being released from his team and the other being simply given a 30-game suspension, and both apologizing publicly. The fact that something this severe happened at such a high level very recently indicates that there is a severe cultural issue when it comes to the inclusion of players of color within the highest levels of men’s professional ice hockey.

When discussing racism in hockey and basketball it is important to discuss the differences between the sheer number of non-white players that dominate each sport, but also how racism still prevails.  The majority of the athletes in the NBA identifying as black is not equivalent to their power or autonomy. The “Great Sports Myth”  allows for this misconception to continue as this assumption held by many believes that sports exist outside of the societal hierarchies and bypass discrimination. Jay Coakley mentioned that “sports is essentially good and pure, and that its purity and goodness is transferred to all who participate in it.” This misconception silences voices as problems are written out of existence. Furthermore, whiteness in this piece is defined as more than a race, but an interconnection of important social relationships and identities (economic, political, social, etc). In the piece “Whiteness as Property” Cheryl Harris equates whiteness with property, believing that its power is innate and unwavering. Whiteness guarantees preferential treatment and access to necessary social capital that is suppressed for everyone else. As the economic position and wealth determine one’s position within the societal hierarchy, it decides treatment within the leagues as well despite who has the majority. Once labeled as “non-white” these athletes instantly lose their autonomy as their bodies and behaviors are controlled by the league’s (and therefore societal) definitions and not their own. Unlike white players, non-white players’ treatment is synonymous with their success in the NBA making each player, no matter the basketball skill, subject to racist ridicule. Their race outranks and decides their ceilings and treatments within the league despite any economic success.

Therefore believing that these discriminatory problems do not exist in the NBA is erasing the voices of countless players. Treatment by the league, spectators, and coaches has been synonymous to both the historical and local context of each team. State behavior which is a reciprocation of overall societal ones, both reveals and allows for intense racism and hate to perpetuate. Boston has been historically hailed a “racist city” with continuous debates if it truly is the “most” racist city in America: “Google the phrase “Most racist city,” and Boston pops up more than any other place, time and time again”. It is reflected within the Boston community as members in positions of power and wealth are predominantly white (overwhelmingly so), in that black Bostonians are shocked when they see black counterparts at popular Boston events (Johnson, 2017). A study done by the Boston Globe found that the number of black workers who were managers or officials in 1983 was 4.5% and in 2016 it increased by only 0.1%.

Bill Russell receiving the Medal of Honor in 2011, presented by President Obama for his fight against racial inequality both inside and outside of the NBA (Photo by GPB)

This discriminatory rhetoric is reciprocated by the Boston Celtics organization. One of the most prominent and dominant members of Celtics history leading his team to elevent titles, Bill Russell, has countlessly condemned the Celtics organization for their blatant overlooking of racist harassment. Russell described the torture he received as a player in the 1960’s receiving countless racist taunts, home vandalizations, and little attendance at his games as he noted the differences in support between himself and white Celtics superstar Larry Bird whose successes resembled each other. In 1972, Russell held his jersey retirement in private as he thoroughly believed that Boston was the most racist city he had ever been as he “never received the respect and adulation he deserved for leading the Celtics to 11 titles because he was black”. This phenomenon is not unique to that time period as similar ridicule and hate is being thrown at black players with no repercussions.  Including Rusell, multiple black Celtics players have discussed differing treatment by the Boston police when not in their uniform, constantly being pulled over and harassed. Most recently, star player Marcus Smart was leaving the Celtics arena after a win when he warned a mother about oncoming cars as she and her son were crossing the street; The white woman who was wearing an Isaiah Thomas Jersey (2015-2017 black Celtics player) turned around and screamed the “n-word” and other derogatory remarks at Smart. Smart was hurt and appalled, but not surprised as racist remarks and treatments are constant as a player both on and especially off the court. Both these instances illustrate racism defying any support or logic from members of and fans of the league. It proves the value of whiteness as the overarching symbol of correctness and preference without needing to have the majority. 

Even more so than race, there is zero representation or access for players who identify as queer. There are currently no openly queer players in the NHL. The closest thing to someone being out in the league at present is Luke Prokop, an openly gay player for the Seattle Thunderbirds in the WHL, who was drafted by the Nashville Predators in 2020. Prokop is the only openly gay player in North American men’s professional hockey at present, and he is in the minor league, not the National Hockey League itself. Having just one player who is still not yet in the major league is representative of a cultural issue within the sport overall.

Luke Prokop signs deal with Nashville Predators after being drafted in 2020 (Photo by People)

Additionally, there has been great controversy surrounding queer representation in the NHL as of late. Players such as Eric and Marc Staal, James Reimer, and Ivan Provorov have all taken a homophobic stand when it comes to pride nights for their respective teams. Citing religious beliefs, all four of these men have refused to wear their pride jersey on the night in which their team has been slated to celebrate the queer community, with the NHL declining to take disciplinary actions afterward. These events are a harrowing indication of the way in which players feel about the queer community, which shows the world that the league is not as inclusive as it wishes to be perceived. Both the lack of queer players and the statements made by homophobic players demonstrate a concerning theme of exclusion for the NHL as a whole when it comes to the queer community.

The invisibility of queerness is furthered by the NBA as only one active player throughout the history of the NBA has come out a gay, Jason Collins in 2014. It is obvious and basic science that there are more players in the NBA who identify as LGBTQ, yet no one has come out since Collins. This is due to the interconnectedness of sexuality and masculinity. Stigmas and fears created by societal ideologies define correctness and rules to obey as aforementioned. This idea is replicated with ideas of masculinity as manliness is ranked by one’s closeness to effeminate ideals. There has been a plethora of female athletes who have come out with no fears or repercussions from fans, rather it is often expected: former WNBA player Candace Wiggins says that “98 percent of the WNBA is gay and that she would have played two more years if not for the “toxic” environment that affected her as a straight woman”. She described the isolation and differing treatment from other players due to her sexuality differing from the norm as Wiggins believed there were different rules for players with different sexualities. It was so intense that she left the WNBA. It is understandable even more so now why men are afraid to come out, any correlation to an unwanted or unaccepted identity affects your entire playing career. In her work, “Linsanity and Centering Sport in Asian American Studies and Pacific Islander Studies,” Kathleen Yep discusses the necessity of the inclusion of former NBA  Jeremy Lin’s title as an Asian American. They believed that intense biases forced Jeremy to not have the same opportunities as his counterparts as he was counted out before stepping foot on the court. Coaches didn’t want him, players didn’t support him and his race became the scapegoat for this mistreatment. This unwanted identity is very similar to being queer as both defy stereotypes of what it means to be an athlete.  There is an underlying assumption and understanding both within the leagues and society about the ideal mold of a player. An NBA player is meant to follow heteronormative ideals and is subject to intense ridicule, hate, and discrimination when they don’t. Players are forced to “overcome” or, if possible, hide their identities. This allows for the perpetuation of stereotypical ideals and assumptions as there is no representation.

Examined together, the NBA and NHL highlight overarching themes of exclusion based on race, gender, and sexuality, within each organization. The NHL is highly exclusive based on non-white and non-heterosexual individuals, as seen with recent events surrounding both identities. The NBA prioritizes whiteness as race and culture in line with societal ideals as proven by the treatment of those deemed other.  Through those themes, it is evident that both the NBA and NHL still have deeply rooted issues, and in order to be completely inclusive, there is a great deal of work to be done.

About the Authors

Carly Falek is a senior in the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts at the University of Michigan. She is majoring in Sociology with a sub-major in Law, Justice, and Social Change and a minor in Cultural and Linguistic Anthropology.

Katey Salogar is a junior at the University of Michigan in the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, majoring in American Culture with a minor in LGBTQ+ Sexuality Studies. She is currently pursuing an honors thesis in American Culture on queer inclusion in professional men’s ice hockey.